After offering an overview of some of the main themes of Popper’s political thought, the paper argues that his account faces two PROBLEMS relating to institutions. The first is that while Popper stresses the ‘rational unity of mankind’, AND the potential for any of us to furnish criticisms of public policy, it is not clear what institutional means currently exist for this to enable this to take place. Second, Popper has stressed the conjectural character of even our best theories. However, at any point, some theories will have fared better in the face of criticism than others, AND they may give us important information about constraints on our actions. At the same time, as ordinary citizens we may not be in a good position to understAND the theories in question, let alone appraise the state of the specialised discussion of them. There is, it is suggested, a case for thinking of ways to institutionally entrench such fallible theories, especially in the current setting in which social media play an important role

Thyme (Thymus spp.) is a medicinal AND aromatic plant which grows in most temperate regions. Presently 14 Thymus species are reported from Iran AND six have so far been collected AND reported from Hamedan province. These include, T. daenensis, T. fallax, T. kotschyanus, T. pubescens, T. migricusAND T. eriocalyx. Based on thyme distribution in the province, diseased samples together with associated PESTS were collected AND transferred to the laboratory. Thyme plant distribution areas were regularly visited AND sampled during 2008-2010. Several samples of PESTS AND DISEASES on Thyme plants were collected. Insect PESTS collected on different thyme species are as follows: thyme aphid, Aphis serpylli on T. daenensis, T. fallax, T. kotschyanus, T. vulgaris, Leaf Miner beetle, Apteropeda sp. on T. daenensis, T. fallax, T. kotshyanus AND Thrips tabasion all Thyme species. Fungi DISEASES separated from diseased thyme plants of the province are, powdery Mildew Golovinomyces biocellatus on T. daenensis, T. fallax, Rust Puccinia serpyllion T. daenensis. Parasitic plant, (Dodder) Cuscuta aproximata collected on T. daenensisAND T. fallax species.

The significant reduction of bollworm infestation by the implementation of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) inBt Cotton as a component of IPM led to reduction in bollworm infestation AND increase in yield.However, these alterations have brought in many new biotic PROBLEMS hitherto unknown or of little economic importance. Field survey of rainfedBt cotton fields in Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu, India during 2008-2014 revealed that the incidence of various insect PESTS AND plant DISEASES is on the rise in differentBt cotton hybrids. In 2008-2009, it was observed that the Bt cotton was damaged by cotton mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley), green mirid bug (Creontiades biseratance Distant) AND root rot (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn) which caused severe yield losses. In addition to that, other PESTS like papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink) AND Alternarialeaf spot caused more damage in Bt cotton during 2009-10. Besides these PESTS, the mirid bug (Campyloma livida Reuter), stripped mealybug (Ferrissia virgata Ckll), tobacco streak virus, grey mildew Ramularia areola AND boll rot incidence inBt cotton were noticed in 2010-12. Apart from this pest AND disease PROBLEMS, theAlterrnaria leaf blight, root rot (Macrophomina phaseolinaMaubl) AND Myrothecium leaf spot caused severe yield losses in Bt cotton during 2012-2014. The survey revealed that, the PESTS AND disease PROBLEMS are increasing year by year inBt cotton which caused yield reduction AND also increased the cost of cultivation. If left unchecked these PESTS AND disease PROBLEMS are capable of undoing all benefits gained due toBt cotton in terms of increased yield AND reduction in use of chemical pesticides.

Background AND objectives: Wastewater treatment plants generate substantial amounts of sewage sludge, necessitating proper management AND disposal strategies. Given its potential to improve soil physico-chemical properties, sewage sludge can be repurposed as an organic fertilizer in poplar plantations, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. However, due to its high nutrient content, particularly nitrogen AND phosphorus, concerns arise regarding its potential impact on tree health, including increased susceptibility to PESTS AND DISEASES. Excess nutrients may alter plant metabolism, making trees either more attractive to herbivorous PESTS or more resilient to infestations. To evaluate this hypothesis, a field study was conducted to assess the effects of fertilization with sewage sludge from the South Wastewater Treatment Plant of Tehran on pest AND disease incidence in two poplar species (Populus nigra 62/154 AND Populus alba 45/67).Methodology: This study, as part of a broader project on the potential application of sewage sludge in poplar plantations, was conducted using a rANDomized complete block design (RCBD) with two factors: (1) sewage sludge at three levels (0, 10, AND 20 kg/m²) AND (2) species at two levels (P. nigra 62/154 AND P. alba 45/67). The experiment included three blocks, each containing six plots (each 16 m²), representing a combination of sewage sludge treatment AND poplar species. In total, the experiment comprised six treatments (3 sewage sludge levels × 2 species) with three replications. Each plot contained nine trees. Over four consecutive growing seasons, all poplar trees were systematically monitored for pest AND disease occurrence, AND data were recorded in pre-prepared forms.Results: During the first growing season, no significant pest infestations were observed in either poplar species, AND trees subjected to different sewage sludge treatments showed no differences in this regard. In the second growing season, Monosteira unicostata was identified as the primary pest, causing partial leaf fall in the middle of the growing season. The infestation rate in P. alba was nearly twice as high as in P. nigra, though no significant differences were observed among sewage sludge treatments. In the third growing season, Phloeomyzus passerinii AND Chaitophorus populeti were the most prevalent PESTS on P. nigra, whereas Phloeomyzus passerinii AND Monosteira unicostata were the dominant PESTS on P. alba. In the fourth growing season, water stress led to the presence of Melanophila picta on some P. nigra trees AND Phloeomyzus passerinii on some P. alba trees. Across all four growing seasons, no significant differences were detected among sewage sludge treatments in terms of pest incidence.Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that sewage sludge fertilization did not significantly influence the susceptibility of either poplar species to PESTS AND DISEASES. This finding is crucial for sustainable forestry management, as it suggests that The four-year monitoring period revealed that P. alba exhibited greater resistance to economically significant PESTS compared to P. nigra. Future studies could further investigate the long-term effects of sewage sludge on soil microbial communities AND tree physiological responses to better understAND its broader ecological impacts

Considering the adverse effects of storage insect PESTS AND their resistance to chemical insecticides, identifying safe, cost-effective, AND durable methods to control AND reduce storage pest-induced damage appears essential. Utilizing diatomaceous earth is one alternative to chemical pesticides for controlling stored-product insect PESTS. This study evaluated the insecticidal activity of diatomaceous earth at a concentration of 0.2 mg/cm2 against two stored-products insect PESTS, Rhyzopertha dominica F. AND Tribolium confusum Jacqulin Duval, on concrete, mosaic, AND galvanized steel surfaces. To this end, the surfaces were treated with different diatomaceous earth formulations, including a commercial formulation, SilicoSec®, an Iranian formulation, Dryasil, Dryasil + 0.05% Mentha longifolia L. extract, AND talcum powder + 0.05% M. longifolia extract. Mortality was measured 1, 3, 5, AND 7 days after treatment. The experiment was conducted at 27 ± 1 °C, 60 ± 5% relative humidity, AND dark conditions. The experiments were performed in nine replications (10 adults in each replication). The mortality percentage of R. dominica 7 days after treatment with Silicosec®, Dryasil alone, Dryasil + 0.05% M. longifolia extract, AND talcum powder + 0.05% M. longifolia extract on galvanized steel were 43.33, 54.44, 33.33, AND 25.55%, respectively. The results indicated that the mortality percentage of T. confusum on galvanized steel was 35.55, 45.55, 26.66, AND 23.33%, respectively. The mortality of T. confusum was lower than that of R. dominica adults. Results indicated that the insecticidal effect of diatomaceous earth increased over time. Diatomaceous earth alone had a more significant insecticidal effect than combining them with M. longifolia extract. The highest percentage of mortality in all treatments was found on the galvanized steel, mosaic, followed by concrete surfaces, respectively. Therefore, Dryasil formulation can be used to control stored-products PESTS in grain silos, although its insecticidal efficacy varies based on surface type

Literature AND purpose: Failure to pay attention to the protection of water resources, soil AND plant resources has caused the destruction of these resources. Among the effective factors in this destruction, we can point out lAND use conversion without a comprehensive approach, cutting down forests, destroying rangelAND, drought, damage by PESTS AND DISEASES. PESTS AND plant DISEASES in the forests AND rangelANDs of the country are considered one of the most important factors of forest destruction. For the prevention AND management of the outbreak of PESTS AND plant DISEASES, there is a need for monitoring AND a comprehensive management plan for PESTS AND plant DISEASES. As the largest province in the country, Kerman province is part of the Turani, Iran zone, AND out of the total area of 181737 square kilometers of this province, about 5% of agricultural lAND, 45% of rangelAND, 13% of forest AND 37% of desert.Methodology: To evaluate AND monitor the status of the most important PESTS AND pathogens of the main plants AND considering the diversity of environmental conditions AND the area of forests AND natural rangelAND in Kerman province, sampling was carried out during the years 2018 to 2020. The monitoring plan was implemented in Dehno, Babzangi, Kohpanj AND Glochar stations as well as Yazdanabad AND Raviz areas as two mountain almond tree habitats. The most important forest communities (trees-shrubs) AND rangelAND in the mentioned areas are Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb. , Amygdalus scoparia Spach. , Amygdalus elaeagnifolia Spach., Artemisia aucheri Boiss's, Artemisia siberi Besser, Stipa arabica Trin. & Rupr AND Zygophyllum atriplicoides Fisch. & C. A. Mey. Periodic sampling of PESTS AND pathogens was done in those plants in the desired parts. In sampling, the type AND level of contamination with PESTS AND pathogens were recorded. Due to the thinness of the almond forests in the investigated areas in Kerman province, the transect sampling method was used in the form of continuous lines. Data collection from rangelAND areas was done during field visits of representative plant types. Sampling in this range was based on systematic rANDom method.  Result: Based on the investigations carried out at the Dehno Bardsir station as the habitat of Z. atriplicoides, the seed-eating moth from the Lepidoptera order, at the Dehno Bardsir AND kohpanj Bardsir stations as the habitat of S. arabica, the Tranzscheliella iranica S. AND Dehno Bardsir AND Kohpanj Bardsir stations as habitats of A. aucheri AND A. siberi, Gallfly from the family of Cecidomyiidae was isolated AND identified with about 4% contamination, also from Yazdanabad ZarAND region as a habitat of A. scoparia, wood-borer beetle capnodis tenebrionis with about 30% contamination AND from Raviz area of Rafsanjan as a habitat of A. elaeagnifolia, mistletoe Loranthus grewinkii Boiss. & Buhse was detected with about 60% contamination. The population fluctuations of the PESTS of seed-eating moth, gallfly AND wood-borer beetle in mountain almonds AND the the stipa smut pathogen in the years of monitoring of damaging agents in the studied areas was almost constant AND no particular fluctuation was observed in these agents population. However, the population of mistletoe as a semi-parasitic plant based on A. elaeagnifolia decreased in the studied area in 2019 AND again in 2020, it was returned to the level of the previous years. The reason for the decrease in the population of L. grewinkii in 2019 was the pruning of the infested tree branches to the mistletoe plant. Conclusion: Due to the unprincipled pruning, this semi-parasitic plant grew again from the previous contaminated places AND reached the previous population level in the following year, according to the results of the seed-eating moth PESTS. The dormant Gallfly, AND the stipa smut have a low population, AND based on their population fluctuations in the studied years, they were in equilibrium with the host plants in their natural environment AND do not have an overflowing state. Based on the results, the populations of C. tenebrionis AND L. grewinkii are high in the host plants, causing severe damage AND reducing the growth AND reproduction of the host. It is necessary to continue detection PESTS AND DISEASES in different regions in order to monitor the existing factors AND the newfound factors to prevent their entry AND spread.

Fruits dropping, the lesser moth (Batrachedra amydraula Meyrick), spider mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus McGregor), Date bunch fading, AND Date palm inflorescence rot DISEASES (Mauginiella scaettae Cavara) are important injurious factors of the date palm. This research was carried out in the Abadan region from 2005 to 2014 to study the effects of temperature AND humidity stresses on injury severity AND simulation of date palm damages prediction model. Four different date palm orchards from four villages were selected AND sampled monthly for the percentage of the date fruit damage until harvest. Climatic data were obtained from the Abadan meteorology station. Multivariate regression, thermal, AND humidity models were used to design the system. Results showed that fruits dropping, the lesser moth, spider mite, Date bunch fading, AND Khamedje DISEASES damages reached maximum at the months of April, June, July, September, AND April, which coincided with the phenological stage of the Hababok, Kimri, Khark, turning Khark into Rotab, AND Hababok, respectively. The damage of these factors started at temperature 21. 4, 21, 26. 7, 30. 2, AND 21. 4 oC AND relative humidity 14. 7, 20, 14. 7, 21. 3, AND 27. 9 gradually increased to 40. 9, 36, 50, 50, AND 37. 6 ° C, respectively. Forecasting model of damage factors has been significant at levels of 1, 5, 5, 5, AND 5 percent, respectively. All of the forecasting models had a coefficient higher than 0. 7 AND the detection error less than 25 percent. Among the meteorological indices, relative humidity AND rainfall had the most influence on the variations in the severities of damages.

Extension bears an important strategic role in the correct application of integrated pest management (an important advance in pest control). The application of extension factors in motivating growers to participate in integrated pest management programs is nowadays employed in many countries. This research was conducted to study the impact of extension factors [promoter visitation (pv), availability to agriculture' service center (aasc), creation of show orchard (csg), AND education & extenuation class (eec)] as well as factors that affect their efficiency, [knowledge of farmers (kt), age of farmers (at) AND farmers' antecedents (fa)] on efficient control of date palm PESTS AND DISEASES AND to reduce the injuries to the crop in Khuzestan province. Sixty five date growers, selected through stratified rANDom sampling based on geographical clustering AND multistage method, were studied. Survey AND descriptional correlated method was employed in the research. Questionnaire was the important tool for data collecting. Machek method was used for studying pest injuries. Data analysis was conducted by descriptive AND analytic statistics. Results indicated that relationships between extension factors AND key PESTS (date spider mite, the lesser moth AND Khamedje disease), whose control was carried out by plant protection organization, were les pronounced than the relationships between factors AND second PESTS (homed beetle, termite AND leaf spot), whose control wase conducted by growers. Multiple regressions showed that the effect of (ask) on key PESTS control was more pronounced than on second PESTS, while (pv) AND (eec) were more important in the case of second PESTS.